Throughout the history of Duck domestication, we humans have discovered one thing. Domesticated ducks aren’t very good parents. The fathers (Drakes) do not partake in the rearing of the young at all, and the mothers are not very attentive. The mother duck will often lay an egg every couple of days and when she has laid a full clutch (anywhere from 8-15 eggs), she will then proceed to full time laying. Her version of full time is actually part time at best. In actuality, the water can easily distract her and she often lets the eggs get cold. Immediately upon breaking their shell, hatchlings are led to the water no matter the weather. This often causes injury and is sometimes fatal for the little ones. These actions have precipitated the practice of small duck farmers placing duck eggs under a broody hen. Large breeders use incubators almost exclusively. Wild ducks are much better at the process. In the wild, once incubation begins, the Drake and the Duck work in concert together to protect the nest. She will leave the nest only once or twice a day, and only when her mate, after making several circling flights of observation, lets her know that the area is free of danger. 

Wild Mallard ducks are the direct relatives of every domesticated breed of duck except The Muscovy. Duck breeds are sorted into classes based on size: Bantam, Lightweight, Medium weight, and Heavyweight. Ducks have been raised throughout history for their meat, eggs and down. Consequently the different breeds serve different purposes.  They are egg-layers, meat producers or both. Aylesbury, Rouen, Pekin, Cayuga, Muscovy and Saxony are all breeds that are raised for meat. Pekin duck is a large white duck, and like all the other breeds that are raised primarily for meat they are classified as a Heavyweight. It is the most popular breed in American markets. It originated in China and was imported to the United States in the late 1870’s. It is favored for industrial production because it matures much more rapidly than the other breeds. Rouens are valued for their beauty and size as well as their meat. The Rouen takes 6-8 months to mature, so although its meat is very delicate and flavorful, it is really only suitable for the small farm as opposed to mass production. The other Heavyweights are cross breeds and have similar characteristics. The lightweight and medium weight breeds are primarily egg-layers. Bantam breeds are most often ornamental. There are breeds within each class that serve as dual-purpose ducks.

There are approximately 22 million ducks being raised for commercial purposes in the United States. We eat an average of a third of a pound of duck meat per person per year. Ducks sold on a retail level are very young so you will see the terms Duck and Duckling used interchangeably. You can buy whole ducks, which include giblets and neck, bone-in parts such as the breast and whole leg, boneless breast of duck, and for the adventurous; tongue and feet are also available. There are processed products that contain duck like sausage and hot dogs as well.

When cooking duck you should plan for 1-11/2 pounds per person. It is important to remember that because ducks are water birds, they have a layer of fat beneath the skin to keep them buoyant. Until this fat has melted the duck isn’t done, so in order to render the fat you must prick the skin with a fork all over before cooking. Unlike beef, duck fat isn’t marbled, it is a layer that covers the muscle, and so it is easily removed if you are using pieces.

Duck meat is darker than both chicken and turkey meat so a common question is whether duck is white or red meat. It is considered a white meat like other poultry. The only reason the breast is darker is because ducks fly. The breast muscles of a duck need more oxygen than do chickens or turkeys.  One of the proteins in meat, myoglobin, holds the oxygen in the muscle, and gives the meat a darker color, compared to the chicken or turkey which generally don’t fly.

 As with all animals, ducks are all inspected at the state or federal level. A USDA Grade shield, usually Grade A (the highest), on a duck is an indication of quality. However grading is entirely voluntary. A processor has to pay to have their ducks graded. In order to get a Grade A rating they must be plump, meaty and have skin free from cuts, bruises and tears. There can be no broken bones, missing parts and few pin feathers. Grade B and Grade C ducklings are generally not sold in supermarkets. For more on poultry grading please visit the USDA poultry grading manual.

Chicken is sold either fresh or frozen. In order to be called fresh, the temperature of the raw chicken must never fall below 26° F. If raw poultry is ever held at 0° F or lower, it must be labeled either frozen, or previously frozen. When deciding whether to buy fresh or frozen, the amount of time between purchase and preparation is what is important. When purchasing chicken, the preparation method is an important consideration. Each different type and cut lends itself to a variety of different textures, flavors and recipe versatility. Chicken benefits from all methods of cooking; from roasting, and grilling to baking and stewing. The type of chicken used generally dictates the cooking method. The two most common breeds of chicken raised domestically for consumption are the Cornish and White Rock. Over the years chicken have been bred to have very large breasts that yield a substantial amount of consumable meat. On the retail level, there are five common classifications of chicken:

• Broiler-fryer
• Roaster
• Capon
• Rock Cornish Game Hen
• Stewing Chickens

Age and gender are the characteristics that differentiate the classifications. A Broiler-fryer is the youngest and therefore the most tender. You will see this classification most often in the meat counter. A Roaster is older and yields the more meat per pound than the broiler, but is less tender. It is generally sold whole, whereas a broiler is sold in pieces. A Capon is a male chicken that has been shall we say, unmanned. When male roosters testes are removed, the aggressive tendencies of the cockerel are removed as well. The result is a more docile bird that tends to get fat. A docile fat Capon has more tender juicy meat in comparison to a roaster or broiler. The Cornish Game Hen was bred specifically to be a single serving of mostly white meat. It is a very young broiler- fryer and is considered a specialty chicken. A Stewing Chicken is an older bird. The meat is considered flavorful but much tougher than it’s younger counter parts and it is named for the best method of preparation.

The younger the chicken the more tender the meat, which allows for more methods of cooking. A stewing chicken is about the only type that shouldn’t be cooked in a dry heat environment (roasting, broiling, barbequing etc..) .

Once you have determined the type of chicken you need, the freshness and quality have to be considered. Federal law does not require dating a product for freshness. The Agricultural Department requires a label identifying the date when poultry is processed and packed at a farm; however, the act of identifying a date that determines the shelf life of a product is entirely voluntary. Most stores will have dates on the packaging that should serve as a guideline for the consumer, but it is possible to determine the quality and freshness of poultry by looking closely at a few things. Looking at the color of the bones is a way to evaluate freshness. If the ends of the bones look gray, you are looking at a bird that has been lying around for a while. Bones that are pinker in color indicate a fresher cut. A good thing to keep in mind when it comes to chicken is that the pinker the flesh, the fresher it is. Stay away from chicken where the skin looks transparent or patchy colored. It doesn’t matter if the skin is yellow or white; different regions breed chicken with different color skin. When you do see a date for freshness it will fall under these categories:

• Sell-By date – The date, which indicates how long a store should keep a product on their shelf. It is not a date by which something will spoil, but a date by which the product is no longer the best quality.
• Best if Used Before Date- This date only refers to quality, not safety or spoilage. It simply means that the product is considered to be at its peak flavor, consistency and quality before this date.
• Use-By date- The very last day a manufacturer determines a product will maintain a high level of quality.

As you can see, none of the “expiration” dates determine a time frame for when a food item becomes spoiled. Utilize the dates as a guideline and buy products that are dated the furthest into the future.

There are many different cuts and packages available at for purchase on the retail level. You can buy a whole chicken with all of the parts intact, or a whole chicken cut in halves, quarters or eighths. You also have the option of buying quantities of single cuts of chicken.

The Whole Chicken

Great for slow roasting. Look for a chicken with a rounded, plump breast.

Chicken half                                     

Cut right down the middle, This cut is great for grilling.

Breast Quarter

The breast and one wing

The Leg Quarter

Two of the most flavorful cuts together

The thigh and drumstick

Breast                                                                  

 Breast Halves

Breast Tenderloin

The whole breast, split breast and muscle of

The breast. Considered the most versatile

part of the chicken. Consists entirely of

white meat.

Wing

Can be purchased whole or in pieces

The wingtip is generally used for stock as there

Is very little edible meat.

Chicken Leg

The leg consists of the thigh and

The drumstick. They also can be

Purchased together or separately.

Entirely consists of dark meat.

There is a huge variety to choose from when shopping for chicken. The package should be clearly labeled in terms of the cut and total weight. Chicken should always be refrigerated, so make sure the package is cool to the touch when selecting it. For more information on the safe handling of chicken from the store to your home, please visit the USDA food safety and inspection service site.

The domestic chicken is thought to be a descendant of a species of red jungle fowl found in India and Southeast Asia. Although there are several theories about their evolution, it is most widely accepted that the chicken was probably domesticated in Thailand around 2000 B.C. Evidence has been found that suggests domestication could have occurred as long ago as 8000 B.C in Harappa (modern day Pakistan). Either way, chicken has been with us for a long, long time. The Romans gave it the name “gallus domesticus” which still stands today as the chicken’s scientific name. Gallus means ‘comb’, which is the red appendage on top of a chicken’s head. The comb is one of the characteristics that differentiate chickens from other types of birds. It has long been believed that chickens arrived in the Americas with early Spanish and Portuguese explorers, but new evidence suggests that chickens arrived with the Polynesians almost one hundred years before the Europeans. In fact, it is the skeleton of a chicken that is the centerpiece of conclusive archeological evidence of Polynesian contact with the Americas.

The chicken has quite an illustrious history. Romans believed chickens were sacred to the God of War; Mars. Chickens blood has been associated with spiritual ceremonies, and in ancient times, the chicken was often the remedy for any number of maladies. Whereas chickens feet may not be the cure for joint pain, chicken soup is still believed to be an effective remedy for the common cold. In many cultures the Cock (what we call a rooster) was revered and worshipped for its ferocity and strength. It is believed that domestication of the Hen (an adult female) for eggs and meat was a by-product of the breeding of Roosters for fighting. It was believed, the greater the prowess of the male, the more productive the female.  Cockfighting is an ancient sport that is found in almost every culture. Other than hunting, it is considered mans oldest sport. It wasn’t until the 18^th century that cockfighting was deemed cruel and inhumane. Even though illegal; you will still find the sport underground in many countries including The United States.

With the suppression of cockfighting, the breeding of chickens focused on egg and meat production.

In the 1800’s, chicken farming was mainly an individual family affair. Chickens were kept for their eggs, and only occasionally did one end up on the dinner table. Eggs were versatile and plentiful considering an average hen will lay one egg every other day. An average family farm kept between 15- 40 chickens. A chicken being sold for their meat was a rare enterprise, and when it occurred, it was a sideline business of a farm at best. It wasn’t until the 1920’s, when the ‘broiler’ was bred that meat production began in earnest. A broiler is simply a term of reference to a chicken that is raised exclusively for its meat. Most early chicken farms were in the South. The weather and available land made the area ideal. Even today Georgia is considered the chicken capital of the world.

Early chicken farming consisted of several different entities. There were separate feed mills, hatcheries, growers and processors. In the 1940’s ambitious entrepreneurs began to consolidate the process and create the integrated industry we know today.

It was in the 1950’s that chicken farming became an agricultural powerhouse and has been growing ever since. In 1960 the average American consumed about 26 lbs of chicken per year. That number has almost tripled to over 85lbs per person today!  In comparison to beef, chicken is perceived to be leaner, and less expensive. That and its versatility in cooking are reasons for its popularity. Over 35 billion pounds of chicken are produced each year. Between eggs, chicken and turkey meat, the industry is producing over $30 billion a year. Chickens are the provider of 25% of the global meat supply, and The United States is the world’s largest producer and exporter.

When we think of poultry on a commercial level, we usually only think about Chicken and Turkey. In fact, poultry is the classification given to birds that are domesticated for the purpose of producing meat, eggs and feathers. Chicken and turkey are the most widely consumed. Other common types of poultry are duck, geese, pigeons and pheasant. They may be more exotic, but they are quite popular from a culinary point of view. Swans and peacocks are domesticated primarily for their feathers and ornamentation. Swans swimming in a pond, or a peacock in a meadow are beautiful sights to see. We will explore all of the different types of poultry; the history, best buying practices and preparation methods.

Whole turkeys are the most commonly purchased turkey product although there are plenty of alternatives available.

When buying whole turkeys the first consideration is almost always the size. If leftovers are important, then you will need 1-½ pounds per person, otherwise 1 pound per person is adequate.

If you prefer fresh turkey over frozen then you can wait to purchase it 1-2 days before serving. Raw poultry must always be kept refrigerated before cooking in order to prevent bacteria growth. Frozen turkeys can be stored in a freezer up to a year. To be considered fresh it must never have reached a temperature below 26°. A frozen turkey is at a temperature of 0°. There is no federal label for a turkey whose internal temperature is between 0-26; however, most retailers will label it refrigerated.

You will have two types of raw turkey to choose from; pre-basted or un-basted. A pre basted (or self basting) bird has been injected or coated with a variety of ingredients that enhance flavor and juiciness. Those ingredients may be broth, vegetable oil, spices and salt. The label will clearly identify whether a bird is pre-basted or all natural. Sometimes you will have a choice between a Tom (a male) or a Hen (a female). The only discernable difference is weight. It is rare that a hen is over 16lbs. Age is the most important quality factor. The younger the bird the more tender and juicy it is. Most retail turkeys are between 4 and 6 months old.

There are many different parts that are cut and packaged for sale.

The turkey breast can be purchased in pieces with or without bone. It is all white meat, and very low in fat cholesterol and sodium. One of the most recent and increasingly popular cuts is the tenderloin. Turkey tenders are pieces cut from the inside of the breast near the bone.

Whole Breast

Turkey Half Breast

Breast Tenderloin

Boneless Breast

The leg section of the turkey is mainly dark meat. A turkey drumstick can be as large as 2lbs! 

Turkey Hindquarter

Turkey Drumstick

Turkey Thigh

Turkey Wing

Drummette

Middle Wing

Turkey Giblets

Ground turkey is given a lot of credit for the substantial increase in turkey consumption. It usually consists of ground white and dark turkey meat. Ground turkey breast is available and is very low in fact; it contains approximately 65 to 75 percent less fat than ground beef. It is used to make turkey sausage, patties and is often a substitute for ground beef. You can buy ground turkey fresh or frozen, in bulk packages or pre-made patties.

Ground Turkey:

There are only two domesticated birds that are actually indigenous to North America. One is the Muscovy Duck, the other is Turkey. Wild turkeys populated most of the North American Continent, and were domesticated by the Aztecs as early as 100 B.C. Pre Columbian civilizations utilized turkey as a main staple in their diet. The feathers of the bird have long been used as adornment for both decorative purposes. Even though there were several species of turkey that called the Americas home, the wild turkeys were not domesticated by early settlers. Turkey was brought to Europe from Mexico in the early 1500s. The aristocracy found them to be quite palatable in comparison to pheasant and domestication ensued. The Europeans were so successful in breeding turkey that the early American settlers brought them along in their trans Atlantic journey. Turkey was an integrated part of the English diet so it was natural that the early settlers brought and continued to import the domesticated Black Turkey. The domesticated bird wasn’t abundant enough to supply the rising colonial population, so cross breeding began between the Black turkey and its cousin The Eastern Wild Turkey. There are 5 subspecies of native North American wild turkies:

Eastern

Florida

Merriam’s

Rio Grande

Gould’s

The differences are primarily location, coloring and size. Turkey was such an important part of the colonist’s diet that wild turkey populations were hunted to dangerous levels by the early 1800s. Wild turkeys are one of the fastest and most elusive of birds, which make them very popular with hunters. Because of land clearing and extensive hunting they were nearly extinct by the 1900s. Conservation efforts have restored abundant populations of the bird to most of America.

The United States is the largest producer and exporter of turkey in the world. With over 7 billion pounds from over 250 million turkeys being produced, the industry is valued at over 3 billion dollars. It has steadily become more popular over the last 20 years. In 1920 turkey farmers raised 1 turkey for every 29 people. At 250 million turkeys a year we almost get one per person.

Popular opinion states that turkey is primarily a holiday meal, but only 27% of turkeys sold are specifically for the holidays. 45 million turkeys are eaten at Thanksgiving, 22 million for Christmas and 19 million for Easter. Turkey has become a very popular and diverse alternative to beef and pork.